(ex-)Yugoslavia



YUGOSLAVIA. 20.07.1917, Corfou - 04.02.2003, Belgrade. R.I.P.


When this country is now part of history, I remind a prophetic sentence of Underground : Ivan, lost in the underground asks for the way back to Yugoslavia. Someone answers him: "Nema Jugoslavia !" (Yugoslavia does not exist any more !).


Understanding the situation in Balkans is necessary to catch the subtleties and to read between the lines of Emir Kusturica's films. The people, the religions, the politics, the geopolitical conflicts had already a strong importance in each republic before they were joined together in Yugoslavia and after they imploded in the complex situation of today.


Geopolitical context


Balkan means mountain and the first physical characteristic of this area is its mountainous aspect, not easily crossable, particularly in the winter. Its accentuated relief does not help mixings of populations and was undoubtedly one of the causes that many particularisms resulting from history remained, and still divide the local populations (all of Slavic roots). There are however geophysical disparities which unbalanced the economic progresses of the various areas : fertile fields in Slovenia, large agricultural plains in Voïvodinia, better conditions for industry in Serbia, sea access for Croatia and Slovenia. Bosnia Herzegovina, mountainous except in its northern part is from this point of view less favoured.


The weight of history

Area not very favourable to the massive military operations and fast progressions, Balkans were naturally a border not easily crossed during the confrontations of Eastern and Western civilizations.

Coming from south, Greek civilization has first reigned on Balkans. The Romans settle on these territories starting from IVth century BC, coming from west and southwest. During the fourth century a first division of the territory occurs because the line separating the Western part of Roman (catholic) empire from its Eastern part (orthodoxe) is situated along the Drina river. During the 5th century, barbarians invasions (Francs, Ostrogoths and Slaves) are coming gradually from east and northest. During XIIIth and XIVth centuries the Ottoman empire gradually extends its influence on Balkans by introducing Islam. In 1389, the Turks win a decisive victory at Kosovo Ploje and obtain a large part of ex-Yugoslavia, except Montenegro and Croatia. This domination involves important population movements : Serbs settle in Voïvodine and in Krajina, and Albanians settle in Kosovo emptied by this emigration. This situation creates a durable feeling of foreign occupancy, badly felt by the populations concerned and thus creating a cleavage within these populations. This cleavage is accentuated by the islamic conversion of bosnian minorities, soon treated as collaborationnists.

At the beginning of the XIXth century, the retreat of the Ottoman empire places gradually these countries under the influence of the Austro-Hungarian empire, Serbia remains however autonomous. The Balkan wars of the beginning of the XXth century push back the Turks, and Turkey reaches its current border. Serbia doubles its surface. A first idea of joining the southern Slavs appears inside the Austrian empire, project which would separate Serbia from Bosnia strongly populated of Serbs. François Ferdinand is then assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, an utopist bosnian serb, on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo.

War bursts and Serbia, thanks to a decisive French assistance, pushes back the Austrians. With the issue of the First World War the countries are gathered within a kingdom which becomes the kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929 with a Croatian opposition (Oustachis) strong enough to cause the assassination in Marseilles of king Alexander Ist. The first explicit reference to Yugoslavia (Southern Slavs) appeared in 1917 with the creation by king Alexandre Karadjordjevic of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which followed the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croatians and Slovens, founded in 1918. King Karadjordjevic was the first leader trying to impose on the mosaic of people gathered under his authority the idea of a Yugoslav identity, but without much success.

The Second World War causes conflicts between Serbs and Croatians, due to the attitude regarding German occupancy. Serb resistance and Tito's communist resistance, are led by Tchetniks, using the old name of the resistants to the Ottoman empire .

During the war a tenth of the population dies. Half of it resulting from the civil war. Then Tito founds a new Republic of Yugoslavia, and will live more than thirty years of peaceful life. With its iron hand, Yugoslavia imagines a socialism that is not aligned on Moscow. Tito will always tried to calm the conflicts between the diffrent ethnic and religious groups ; thus, in 1968 he creates the "muslim" nationality, for those who do not identify as Serb, nor as Bosnian. This nationality did not imply any religious belongship.

However, after his death in 1980, the country dislocates slowly. In the 80's, central autority is gradually lowered to the benefit of the provinces in which will grow very nationalist atmospheres. In 1989, the fall of the Berlin Wall will encourage the provinces to emancipate from the authority of Belgrade.


The crisis in Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia


The elections of 1990 lead to the sucess of Franco Trudjman who is elected president of Croatia, what refuse the Serbs living in the south of the country. The Croats start to build an army. In 1991, Milošević takes the power in Serbia exploiting the claims of the Serb minorities of Kosovo in front of in the local Albanian muslim majority. June 25, 1991 Slovenia and Croatia proclaim their independence what causes the first engagements. October 15, 1991 the croato-muslim majority votes for the sovereignty of Bosnia, which involves auto-proclamation of three autonomous Serb republics, in the north of Bosnia (Banja Luka), in eastern Herzegovina and in Romanja (Blade). The European Community recognizes Bosnia on April 6, 1992. The federal army, now Serb, settles in Serbia which becomes with Montenegro, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) on April 27, 1992.

The Serb militia takes the heights of Sarajevo and install heavy weapons. The Serbs of Bosnia also take cities next to Serbia. In 1993 the Croats attack the Muslims in Mostar whereas the Serbs help the Croats in central Bosnia and the bosnian army in Mostar. One year later under assistance of the USA a croato-muslim agreement ends the hostilities (March 18, 1994). Following the engagements a certain balance of the forces remains in Bosnia.

An exclusion zone is created during the ultimatum of Sarajevo on February 9, 1994 after the explosion of a fatal bomb in the market of Markale. No heavy weapon should be fired within a 20 km circle centered on Sarajevo or being out of the control of the FORPRONU. The same status is extended to the town of Gorazde on April 22, 1994.

At the end of 1994 the war has made more than 150 000 died people and 2 million moved people including 1 200 000 refugees out of Bosnia-Herzegovina (when there was 4 350 000 people in 1991). During this period failed the plans Vance Owen (January 1993), and Owen Stoltenberg (September 1993) whereas the plan Juppé Kinkel (April 1994) meets severe difficulties. In the spring of 1995 after an hostage capture of blue helmets, the international community reacts more highly, and sends a fast force of reaction and starts a more brutal engagement of NATO and UN which results in air and terrestrial operations strongly criticised due to strong collateral damages. Today all the light was still not made, in particular in massacres like that of Srebrenica.

Then, a peace process is being developped and leads to the agreements of Dayton on November 21, 1995, signed in Paris on December 14, 1995. These agreements foresee the separation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in two entities: the Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina (of which the majority of the ten cantons present a bosnian-muslim majority : cantons of Sarajevo, Tuzla or Zenica, or a Croatian majority : canton of Livno, in Herzegovina), and Republika Srpska (with a Serb majority). But if Bosnia is officially divided into two entities, it actually does not count less than thirteen governments : those of the common State, those of each of the two entities, and those of the ten cantons of the Federations...

Feeling crushed by a capacity lowered by the international community for its exactions within the conflicts in Bosnia, Croatia and in Kosovo, Montenegro took little by little distance from Belgrade to engage on the way of independence. After the fall of Milošević in October 2000 and the introduction of a team of democrates and reformists to the head of Yugoslavia, the European Union opposed to a new parcelling out in Balkans, summoning Serbia and Montenegro to get along, at least for a three years period.

Thus, the creation of this Serbia-Montenegro Union, whose common institutions, still of first importance (diplomacy, defense, economy, minorities), were very limited. Despite the pressures of Brussels to maintain the federated state, Montenegro organized after the three-years period a self-determination referundum. Europe still imposed a specific 55% mandatory rate for independance in order to recognize the results.This rate was shortly obtained with 55.5% with the vote of 21 may 2006.
Serbia has thus inherited from the institutions and the international positions of the previous federated state, and Montenegro was admitted on 28th june 2006 as the 192nd state of the UN.

Le courrier des Balkans


If you wish to continue to learn more from the matter, I recommend the remarkable site of Le Courrier des Balkans, undoubtedly the most complete French-speaking sites on this subject. "Le Courrier des Balkans's main role is to translate the articles published in the press of the countries of Europe of south-east (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Kosovo, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldavia, Greece and Turkey)."


Slovenia


Name : REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA
Local name: REPUBLIKA SLOVENIJE
Capital : Ljubljana
Area : 20 256 km²
Religions : Roman Catholic
Population : 1 971 739 Slovens


Official member of European Union since may 1st 2004, Slovenia is the richest and the most "Western" of the Republics of ex-Yugoslavia
... And please do not confuse a Sloven with a Slovak!


www.slovenia-tourism.si : the tourism portal to Slovenia.


Croatia


Name : REPUBLIC OF CROATIA
Local name: REPUBLIKA HRVATSKA
Capital : Zagreb
Area : 56 538 km²
Religions : Roman Catholic , Serb Orthodox, Muslim
Population : 4 671 584 Croats

Croatia, independent since 1991, was throughout its history at the crossroads of four great cultural spaces, which gives to the country an astonishing rich heritage, as well architectural as artistic. In addition to the Slavic character of its inhabitants (from the end of 6th century), Croatia was under the Venetian influences on the Dalmatian coast, and the austro-Hungarian influences in the northern plains of Slavonia and in the Danube regions. This heritage superimposes on the pre-roman - Roman and Byzantine - more complex but to which it owes its Christian tradition, of Roman rite, and its Latin alphabet. The immediate vicinity of the Otoman Empire, from 15th to 19th century, whose expansion was stopped on Croatian ground, also had its importance since Croatia then inherited its current borders in form of a "horseshoe".

Since 2004, Croatia is officially candidate to the European Union, with hopes to integrate in 2007.


Rich of a better saved cultural inheritance than his neighbours, Croatia makes considerable efforts to develop tourism. Its exceptional coast abounds in islands and pleasant seaside resorts. Dubrovnik is the pearl of the coast ; it is classified by UNESCO.


Bosnia-Herzegovina


Name : REPUBLIC OF BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
Local name : REPUBLIKA BOSNA I HERCEGOVINA
Capital : Sarajevo
Area : 51 233 km²
Religions : Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Muslim, Jewish
Population : 3 365 727 Bosnians


Today, Bosnia-Herzegovina suffers and has still not yet cured all its wounds. Indeed, more than one third of the historic buildings was destroyed by the Serbs of Bosnia (memoricide) during the 92-95 war, like the National Library of Sarajevo (Austro-Hungarian architecture) or the famous mosque of Foca (XVth centuruy), which was one of the most beautiful in the country. Most of the muslim religious inheritance (2 000 monuments) was methodically destroyed not to leave any trace of this civilization. Today UNESCO tries to index the places which can still be saved.


The best example of Bosnia-Herzegovina's "reconstruction" is certainly the bridge of Mostar (Stari Most), architectural masterpiece, designed by the ottoman architect Mimar Hayruddin, and completed in 1566 after nine years of work, the bridge rose formerly above emerald water of the Neretva. Only half an hour was necessary, on November 9, 1993, so that the Croatian artillery destroys it. In 1997, the UNESCO started a program for its rebuilding. Under the direction of French architect Gilles Pequeux, work lasts from 1998 to 2004. The new bridge will be inaugurated on July 23, 2004, it was rebuilt with the same plans, of course, with to the same techniques, with the stones coming from the same career, and - irony of the history - by a Turkish building entreprise !


Serbia


Name : Republic of Serbia
Local name : Republika Srbija
Capital : Belgrade
Area : 88 361 km²
Religions : Serb Orthodox, Muslim, Roman Catholic
Population : 10 100 000 Serbs

After the official independence declaration of Montenegro, on June 3, 2006, the Serb Parliament adopted on the 5th June 2006 a declaration officially making the Serb State the successor of the old "Common State of Serbia-and-Montenegro", being the successor of the "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", having succeeded to the "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", at the time of Tito.

Kosovo is still managed by the United Nations, some talks are still occurring to determine its final status (autonomy within the Republic of Serbia or independence).


Today as Yugoslavia belongs to history, the new country Serbia must face multiple problems to create an identity, a unit.

Trouble for the editors, all the maps must be republished, the atlases, dictionaries, guides, booklets and European schoolbooks are obsolete since june 2006...


After 10 years under the lights of the international community, Serbia whishes to change its image and develop tourism. Emir Kusturica's project in Küstendorf was thus particularly welcomed by the authorities.


Montenegro


Name : Republic of Montenegro
Local name : Republika Crna Gora
Capital : Podgorica
Area : 13 812 km²
Religions : Serb Orthodox, Muslim, Roman Catholic
Population : 620 000 Montenegrins

First State formed in XIth century under the name of Zeta, annexed by the Nemanjic's medieval Serbia, then autonomous principality inside the Othoman Empire during centuries. Its independence was recognized internationally by the Congress of Berlin in 1878, proclaimed kingdom in 1910. Montenegro fought with the Allied during the First World War but was integrated, under the pressure of the Serbs, after a disputed vote of Great Skoupchtina on November 24, 1918 into the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croatians and Slovenians, which became in 1929 the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. It was one of the federate republics of the socialist federal Republic of Yugoslavia at the Communist time, then under the regime of Milošević who preserved only two constitutive republics under the name of Yugoslavia, then after 2003 under the name of Serbia-and-Montenegro.
In 2002, under the pressure of the European Union, Serbia and Montenegro agreed on a reorganized union for at least three years. This compromise, known as the "Agreement of Belgrade", envisaged, among other changes, to give up definitively the name of Yugoslavia for that of Serbia-and-Montenegro. At the end of this moratory period, a referendum on the independence of Montenegro was organized on May 21, 2006. 55,5 % of the votes went on independence (motivated by the desire of a faster integration into the European Union and NATO), this event thus announcing the final dissolution of what remained of the old Yugoslavia.


Macedonia


Name : EX-YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
Local name : REPUBLIKA MAKEDONIJA
Capital : Skopje
Area : 25 333 km²
Religions : Macedonian Orthodox, Muslim
Population : 2 009 387 Macedonians

Macedonia is a mountainous and enclosed country.


Because of a disagreement by Greece on its name, the majority of the international organizations and the foreign States call officially this country the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia or the Yugoslav Ex-Republic of Macedonia. They can however largely make use, by convenience, in the less official texts (official statements, telegrams of condolences, navigation links of the ministries sites for the Foreign Affairs) of the terms Macedonia and Republic of Macedonia.


The flag of the country represents the star of Vergina, symbol associated with Alexander the Great, but carrying 8 rays instead of the 16 of the original star of Vergina.